The cardinal virtues are the four moral virtues thought by ancient philosophers to form all other virtues acquired by human effort and repetition. The concept of these virtues–consisting of prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance–traces back to Plato. Saint Ambrose later assigned the designation “cardinal,” stemming from the Latin root cardo or hinge, to emphasize that on these four qualities hinge the moral life.
Saint Thomas Aquinas builds upon Aristotle’s view that happiness extends beyond emotion to the fulfillment of our pursuit to attain that which is truly good. Satisfaction of living well is derived when our lives have meaning and purpose. To that end, we must understand what is good for us so that we can live a moral life and direct our efforts toward their proper end.
Saint Thomas Aquinas believes that seeking our final end is to realize the infinite and perfect good, which can only be found in God Himself. We, therefore, must order our lives to know and love God, the Source of all good things and the Creator of all life. Because this surpasses the capabilities of our human nature, we need the virtues to lead us.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines human virtues as “firm attitudes, stable dispositions, habitual perfections of intellect and will that govern our actions, order our passions, and guide our conduct according to reason and faith” (CCC 1804). Saint Thomas Aquinas follows Aristotle’s division of the human virtues into two categories: the intellectual virtues which perfect reason and discern the good and the moral virtues which perfect our appetite and moderate our actions in accordance with right reason.
Our recent exploration into the capital vices revealed that we tend toward temptation through disordered passions and desires resulting from the fall of our first parents. Last month, we opened our conversation about virtue as a means to overcome vice. The Catechism of the Catholic Church explains:
“It is not easy for man, wounded by sin, to maintain moral balance. Christ’s gift of salvation offers us the grace necessary to persevere in the pursuit of the virtues. Everyone should always ask for this grace of light and strength, frequent the sacraments, cooperate with the Holy Spirit, and follow his calls to love what is good and shun evil” (CCC 1811).
Virtue becomes our guide on the path to achieving happiness. Moral virtues can be attained by anyone, regardless of faith, through reason and repetitive behavior. “The moral virtues are acquired by human effort,” states the Catechism of the Catholic Church. “They are the fruit and seed of morally good acts; they dispose all the powers of the human being for communion with divine love” (CCC 1804).
We grow in moral virtue through education and positive role models, through on-going participation in virtuous acts, through our experience and reflection, and through steady perseverance during struggles. When the virtuous response becomes our default response, we ease the difficulty of constant moral decision making. Our virtues are diminished when we engage in habits that are opposed to virtue such as vice. Neglecting to practice virtue will weaken or destroy the virtue within us.
Moral virtues are considered to be imperfect when there is only an inclination to do the good. In such a case, we choose to act virtuously without necessarily becoming virtuous. We can possess and practice any combination of imperfect virtues.
To be a virtuous person, however, our virtue must be perfected as a stable habit and act in full accordance and conjunction with all of the other virtues. According to Marcus Tullius Cicero, “If you confess to not having one particular virtue, it must needs be that you have none at all.” Saint Ambrose expands: “The virtues are connected and linked together, so that whoever has one, is seen to have several.” Saint Augustine concurs “the virtues that reside in the human mind are quite inseparable from one another.” Pope Saint Gregory the Great indicates that “one virtue without the other is either of no account whatever, or very imperfect.” Saint Thomas Aquinas echoes his predecessors when he says “the perfect moral virtue is a habit that inclines us to do a good deed well; and if we take moral virtues in this way, we must say that they are connected.”
Saint Gregory of Nyssa claims, “The goal of a virtuous life is to become like God.” The Old Testament states: “Or if one loves righteousness, whose works are virtues, She teaches moderation and prudence, righteousness and fortitude, and nothing in life is more useful than these” (Wisdom 8:7).
The cardinal virtues are habits of our intellect, our will, and our passions. Prudence perfects our practical intellect and directs every action we undertake. Through a process of deliberating, judging, and commanding our behavior, prudence ensures that all of our actions are conformed to reality. Like prudence, justice also bears on all of our actions through our social nature and pursuit of the common good. Justice perfects the will to give what is properly due to God and neighbor. Fortitude perfects the irascible passions by moderating the passion of fear. Fortitude ensures reasonable courage through difficulties and perseverance in the pursuit of good. Temperance perfects the concupiscible passions by moderating our desire for sense pleasures and balancing our use of created goods.
This month, we will focus our attention on the moral virtues, which dispose us to act well in a way beyond wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. Specifically, our “Weekly Challenge” section will feature one cardinal virtue each week for further study and practice. Please share your thoughts regarding the development of healthy habits through the cardinal virtues. Next month, we will review the theological virtues–special gifts from God infused in our souls–which envelop and elevate the human virtues.
